ʿAbd al-Raḥmān II, fourth Umayyad ruler of Muslim Spain who enjoyed a reign (822–852) of brilliance and prosperity, the importance of which has been underestimated by some historians.
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān II was the grandson of his namesake, founder of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. His reign was an administrative watershed. As the influence of the ʿAbbā sid Caliphate, then at the peak of its splendour, grew, Córdoba’s administrative system increasingly came into accord with that of Baghdad, the ʿAbbāsid capital. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān carried out a vigorous policy of public works, made additions to the Great Mosque in Córdoba, and patronized poets, musicians, and men of religion. Although palace intrigues surrounded his death in 852, they did not diminish his accomplishments.
Abd ar-Rahman II (Arabic: عبد الرحمن الأوسط; 792–852) was the fourth UmayyadEmir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852.[1] A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures.[2] He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids.[3] Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.[4]
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.[1] A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.[6] He was also involved in the execution of the "Martyrs of Córdoba",[7] and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba.
Abū l-Mutarraf 'Abd ar-Rahmān ibn al-Hakam (Arabic: أبو المطرف عبد الرحمن بن الحكم), better known as Abder-Rahman II (Toledo, October-November 792 - Córdoba, September 22, 852), son and successor of Alhakén I, was the fourth Umayyad emir of Córdoba from May 25, 822 until his death.
Life
Beginning of his reign
He was thirty years old when he ascended the throne and, like his father and grandfather, had to suppress the claims to the throne of his uncle Abd Allah. He gave himself up to the task of administratively reorganizing Al-Andalus. He tried to present an image of moderation to the Mozarabs and Muslims subjected to the rule of the Arab aristocracy. Aware of the power and influence of the alfaquíes, he ordered the demolition of the Saqunda wine market, near the Cordovan capital, contrary to the precepts of the Koran. Then, as a concession to the mob, he crucified his father's tax policy maker, a Christian the sources call Rabbi.
Yemenis, Muradites and later founder of the Mursiyya
The peace restored in Spain by the emir Abuljatar, by quelling the conflict between the Beledi Arabs and Syrians in the previous century, did not last. The said emir, who began his government measuring everyone equally, soon bowed by the Yemenis, to the detriment of their rivals, the muradis, giving rise to the outbreak of the civil war again with as much or more fierceness than before. The former, that is, the Yemenis, had conquered and established their seat in Yemen, the most flourishing part of southern Arabia, many centuries before our era, subjugating the race of uncertain origin that inhabited that country. The muradies or caisíes were descendants of Ishmael and lived in Hechaz, where Mecca and Medina are located. Both peoples or tribes constituted, so to speak, the first material of the Muslim empire.
The emirate of Abderramán II had just opened, a war broke out in the Tudmir Kora, in the southeast of the peninsula, between the Yemeni and Muradid clans. The spark jumped in Lorca, where the famous battle of al-Musara took place. The war between the Yemenis and Muradids had already lasted seven years and the chora was pacified by the Umayyad general ibm Mu'awiya ibn Hisan, and there is talk of 3,000 dead rebels, including their commander, the Yemeni Abu Samaj.
Abderramán's troops then destroyed the city-refuge of the rebels, Eio, and the Emir decided to transfer the capital of the chora from Orihuela to a new city, Madina Mursiya, founded on Sunday, June 25, 825. Murcia stood on a small elevation on the banks of the Segura River, in order to pacify the territory, promote development and strengthen the authority of the Emirate. General Chabir was the first governor of Murcia.
Andalusi splendor
Abderramán II promoted science, the arts, agriculture and industry. During his reign, the Indo-Arabic numbering system, called position, with a decimal base, was introduced in al-Andalus. Before being proclaimed emir, he started a library that became very numerous, for which he commissioned highly qualified people to bring him the most interesting specimens from the East and those with the greatest contribution to knowledge, thus beginning a good collection of books. He attracted the most illustrious scholars of his time to Córdoba and personally cultivated poetry. His brilliant court was dominated by the figures of the musician Ziryab, the alfaquí Yahya (an intolerant and ambitious religious), the concubine Tarub (who wanted to get the throne for her son Abdalá) and the eunuch Nasr (a muladí).
Abderramán II magnified and showered the city of Córdoba with wealth, surpassing previous emirs in the splendor of his court. According to Eulogio's Memorial:
In 850 (...), the twenty-ninth year of the emirate of Abderraman. The people of the Arabs, magnified in wealth and dignity in Hispanic lands, took hold under a cruel tyranny of almost all Iberia. As for Cordoba, once called Patricia and now named after her settlement, she brought her to the highest concussion, she ennobled her with honors, magnified her with her glory, filled her with riches and embellished her with the influx of all the delights of the world beyond what is possible to believe or say, to the point of overturning, overcoming and overcoming in every worldly pomp.
Eulogio de Córdoba: Memorialis sanctorumin: Aldana García (1998), p. 116.
Abderramán II was the founder of the city of Murcia.
These concise reports coincide with those provided by Ibn Hayyan:
The emir Abderramán ibn Alhakén was the first of the Marwanian caliphs to shine to the monarchy in Al-Andalus, clothed it with the pomp of the majesty and conferred on it reverential character, choosing men for the functions, making visires to perfectly capable people and appointing alcaides to proven paladins; in their days He held correspondence with sovereigns from various countries, erected alcazars, made works, built bridges, brought fresh water to his Alcazar from the tops of the mountains.
Ibn Hayyan (2001), p. 171
He increased taxation considerably, and led to better control of income. In his days, the taxes (yibayat) accrued in Al-Andalus acquired a large volume, income from real estate income (haray) increased and records were instituted in the chancelleries of which the correct taxes applied to the population of the country depended, which came to serve as a reference between rulers and subjects. The Anonymous Description of al-Andalus says of Abderramán II:
It was the first omeya that coined in Cordoba, recorded the dirhemes with his name and instituted a bait, to which he put alamines. From the conquest until then the inhabitants of al-Andalus used the dinars and dirhemes that brought from the East. During his reign the tax collection increased, the exactions of the jarachAlcazars, cities and workshops were built; the Christian kings and other places submitted to him.
An anonymous description of al-Andalus (1983), p. 149.
The collection reached a million dinars, but the plunder inflicted on the middle and lower classes by forced labor was squandered on courtly luxuries and other extravagances. He built splendid buildings taking advantage of the materials from the Roman period that he plundered everywhere, with the intention of enhancing his government:
He was the first one to make fast buildings and compliments to the bar, using advanced machinery and
revolving all the regions in search of columns, looking for all the instruments of al-Andalus and
taking them to the caliphal residence of Cordoba, so that all famous factory there was construction and design of his.
Ibn Hayyan (2001), p. 182.
Abd al-Rahman ordered the expansion of the aljama mosque in Córdoba, placing Nasr and Masrur, the main eunuchs, in charge of the work, and the work was supervised by Muhammad ibn Ziyad, the qadi of Córdoba. Abder-Rahman's wives and concubines also built mosques which bear their names and are known by them, such as the Tarub Mosque, the Fahr Mosque, the Achchifa Mosque, the Mut'ah Mosque, and many other similar ones, and they competed in good works and alms in Córdoba and in their district. Abderramán surrounded himself with scholars, alfaquíes, scholars and courtly poets, whom he splendidly entertained, especially the alfaquíes and muftíes. To Ziryab, a famous musician whom he sent to come from Baghdad, he made great concessions and assigned him generous emoluments, since he received two hundred cash dinars a month, and his name came on the payroll immediately after the viziers. The emir extended to his sons successively desirable allowances, giving them fixed salaries and magnificent territorial concessions, so that they would not burden their father in his emoluments in the slightest, paying each of the three, Ubaydallah, Ja'far and Yahya., twenty dinars per month, in addition to the regular bonuses.
Dirham of silver coined during the reign of Abderraman II.
Foreign Policy
In order to maintain the luxurious lifestyle of his court and suppress the discontent caused by the despotic regime, the emir maintained his father's militaristic policy, increasing the number of foreign armed forces, loyal only to him, who They did not mix with the population. Likewise, skillful work was carried out to build fortresses (ribat) that would give rise to towns such as Calatrava (Qala'at ar-Ríbat).
Almost every year there were attacks against the Christians and in some cases three were even unleashed. The majority was directed against Álava and, especially, Galicia, which was the most vulnerable region of the Kingdom of Asturias. Despite this, there were also attacks against Osona (Vich), Barcelona, Gerona and even Narbona in the expeditions of the years 828, 840 and 850.
In May 843, Musa ibn Musa, head of the Banu Qasi family, led an insurrection against them, being helped in it by García I Íñiguez, king of Pamplona, with whom he was related. After the uprising was crushed, he attacked the lands of Pamplona, defeating García Íñiguez and Musa.
On November 11, 844, he prepared a contingent to face the Vikings who had conquered and sacked Seville a month earlier. The pitched battle took place on the grounds of Tablada, with catastrophic results for the invaders, who suffered a thousand casualties; another four hundred were taken prisoner and executed and some thirty ships were destroyed, the hostages being released. Over time, the small number of survivors converted to Islam, settling as farmers in the area of Coria del Río, Carmona and Morón de la Frontera. New Norman raids were given in the years 859, 966 and 971, the latter being frustrated and the Viking fleet totally annihilated.
The martyrs of Córdoba
Main article: Martyrs of Córdoba
"Allah" (God) in Arabic calligraphy.
Regarding the Hispanic population, they continued to regard their Muslim masters as invading despots, a feeling accentuated by reasons such as schizophrenia derived from the rapidity of conversions to Islam, mixed marriages, economic causes such as the new tax system (the loss of productive base), and the loss of power of the Christian religion before the Muslims. The pressures to abandon Latin and Romance in favor of Arabic became unbearable for this small group of followers of Eulogio de Córdoba. The Mozarabic problem broke out again when, in the course of a conversation, a Cordovan priest named Perfecto declared that Muhammad was a false prophet, in addition to insulting him. Perfecto was brought before the qadi, sentenced to death, and beheaded on April 18, 850 before a rousing mob. The bloody event, although it had several precedents, on this occasion produced a whole chain reaction in the jaded Mozarabic people: the famous episode of the Martyrs of Córdoba, in which 48 prominent Christians deliberately defied the laws against blasphemy, apostasy and Christian proselytism, knowing that death awaited them. Despite this, the pressures and cruel persecution in this period led to numerous conversions to Islam.
Shortly before dying in 852, Abderramán managed to get a council of Mozarabic bishops, chaired by Metropolitan Recafredo of Seville, to forbid from the pulpits that his faithful perform similar acts in the future, without condemning the conduct of the martyrs who had challenged to Islamic power. By not formally repudiating such acts, martyrdoms continued for a few years, until the movement died out in 859.
Portrait of the emir
Ibn Idhari left us this portrait of Abderramán II:
...was very dark and eagle nose. He had his eyes big and black and sharp eyes. It was tall and corpulent and had very accented the nasogenian groove of the upper lip, where the mustaches were separated. His beard was very long, and much use of henneand ketem.
Ramón Menéndez Pidal says of him:
...This prince, except his descendant al-Hakam II, was, of course, the most cult of all the Hispanic-Omeya emirs. It was very given to literature, philosophy, science, music and, above all, poetry, because it had great ease to compose verses. He was interested in the hidden sciences, astrology and interpretation of dreams. He wrote a book entitled Al-Andalus anals. After consolidating his power, he devoted himself to his pleasures without any brake.
Family and children
The Emir Abderramán was madly a womanizer, and never took anyone who was not a virgin, even though she surpassed the women of his time in beauty and excellence, his taste, inclination and dedication to them being excessive, as well as the number in which he had them and the passion of which he made them the object. He had several favorites among his concubines, who dominated his heart and conquered his passion. Among all of them, he ended up with his love called Tarub, mother of his son Abdallah.
To keep them happy, he gave them splendid gifts. To his concubine al-Shifá (Salud) he gave a very valuable pearl necklace called the Dragon, formerly the property of Zobeida, the wife of Harun al-Rashid, which he had bought for ten thousand dinars, which seemed excessive to one of his closest viziers.
The almost proverbial amatory capacity of Abderramán II resulted in a large offspring, which the sources estimate with admiration at the extraordinary number of 87 children, 45 of them male. He was succeeded by Mohamed I.
Sons in order of birth according to Ibn Hazm:[8] Al-Hakam II (son of Murjan)[10] Abd al-Aziz Al-Asbagh Ubayd Allah Abd al-Jabbar Abd al-Malik Sulayman Abdullah Marwan Al-Mundhir Al-Mugira
The Umayyads ruled the Muslim world from 661 to 750, but when the Abbasids came to power they put most of the Umayyad princes to death. Only a handful of Umayyad princes escaped the ensuing massacre. Abd al-Rahman, the grandson of Umayyad ruler Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, was one of them. He fled Damascus and travelled on foot and by ship for many years before he finally reached North Africa, where he received a warm welcome from the Berber tribe of Banu Nafisa (in present day Morocco). During his stay there he received news of the political chaos and disorder which prevailed across the sea in al-andalus (Islamic Spain) at the time. When he was informed that the Muslims in Spain had become bitterly divided into two factions -- one faction supported the reigning governor, Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, while the other group opposed him -- Prince Abd al-Rahman immediately contacted the governor's opponents and enlisted their help in order to overthrow him. In 756, he led an army into battle and defeated the governor's forces before proceeding to Cordova, the capital of al-andalus, and in so doing inaugurated Umayyad rule in Spain. Known also as al-dhakil (or 'the Immigrant') and sahib al-andalus (or 'the Lord of Islamic Spain') on account of his outstanding political leadership and organizational ability, Abd al-Rahman and his descendants went on to rule Muslim Spain for nearly three centuries. During this period, Muslim Spain produced a number of influential rulers, but the most outstanding of them all was Caliph Abd al-Rahman III.
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III (born January 891—died October 15, 961, Córdoba) was the first caliph and greatest ruler of the Umayyad Arab Muslim dynasty of Spain. He reigned as hereditaryemir (“prince”) of Córdoba from October 912 and took the title of caliph in 929.
Accession as emir
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān succeeded his grandfather ʿAbd Allāh as emir of Córdoba in October 912 at the age of 21. Because of his intelligence and character he had been the obvious favourite of his grandfather, who had designated him heir presumptive in preference to the other royal princes. In appearance he is described as having been light-skinned, handsome, thickset, and short-legged. He appeared to be very short when he walked but was imposing on horseback.
Public homage was paid to ʿAbd al-Raḥmān in Córdoba immediately after his accession. He set about at once and with great energy to restore the authority of Córdoba in Spain—an authority that had been curtailed during the latter years of the reign of his grandfather by a host of rebels entrenched in mountain forts throughout the land. Ten days after his accession he had the head of the first rebel exhibited in Córdoba. Thereafter, for a score or so of years, he led almost annual expeditions against the rebels, first in southern and later in central and eastern Spain.
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān’s greatest enemy was a crypto-Christian rebel, ʿUmar ibn Ḥafṣūn, lord of Bobastro. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān’s strategy was one of continuous harassment of Ibn Ḥafṣūn’s forts. Beginning with the campaign of Monteleón, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān captured 70 forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén—all of which had been directly or indirectly controlled by Ibn Ḥafṣūn. In 913 Sevilla (Seville) was captured, followed by Algeciras, Rayyu, Sidonia, and Carmona. When Ibn Ḥafṣūn died in 917, the rebellion collapsed. His children were captured or killed, and the centre of the rebellion, Bobastro, was finally stormed in 928. In 933 Toledo fell after a bitter siege, and, with its fall, the last Muslim centre of resistance to Córdoban hegemony disappeared.
Campaigns against the Christians
Meanwhile, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān also had to check threats from the Christian north. The main danger came from the kingdom of Leon. An expedition commanded by Ordoño II, then vassal king of Galicia and later king of Leon, into Muslim territory in the summer of 913, especially his sack of Evora (Talavera) and the massacre of its Muslim population, produced widespread resentment in Muslim Spain. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān decided to counterattack, which he began in earnest in 920, leading the campaign of Muez in person. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz and then inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined armies of Leon and Navarre at Valdejunquera on July 26, 920. Four years later, in the spring of 924, he led another campaign into Navarre and sacked the capital, Pamplona. With these two campaigns, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was able to secure his frontiers with Christian Spain for the next seven years. But the next king of Leon, Ramiro II, who ascended the throne in 932, proved a formidable adversary and began immediately to mount attacks against Muslim territory. The encounter between the two rulers finally took place in 939, when, at the so-called ditch of Simancas (Shānt Mānkus), Ramiro severely defeated the Muslims, and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān narrowly escaped with his life. After that defeat ʿAbd al-Raḥmān resolved never to take personal charge of another expedition. The Christian victory, however, was not followed up. When Ramiro died in 950 and civil war broke out in the Christian territories, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān made good his earlier losses so thoroughly that in 958 Sancho, exiled king of Leon, Garcia Sánchez, king of Navarre, and his mother, Queen Toda, all paid personal homage to ʿAbd al-Raḥmān in Córdoba.
In North Africa the policy of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was directed against the Fāṭimids in al-Qayrawān (now in Kairouan, Tunisia). In order to check their control over North Africa he financed rebellions against them and sent naval expeditions to sack the coastal cities. The city of Ceuta was fortified in 931 as a base of operations in North Africa. Toward the end of his reign, however, Fāṭimid power increased, and the Fāṭimid general Jawhar was able to repulse the allies of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. The struggle with the Fāṭimids, however, was inconclusive and was to continue throughout the 10th century.
As a result of his early successes, and probably at his own suggestion, some of his court poets urged ʿAbd al-Raḥmān to adopt the title of caliph. He assumed that dignity in 929, shortly after the fall of Bobastro, and chose the honorific title Al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (“Victor for the Religion of God”). His reasons were, internally, to enhance his prestige and, externally, to counter the Fāṭimid claim to this honour.
Significance
The consolidation of power brought great prosperity to Muslim Spain—one indication of which was his building of a mint where pure gold and silver coins were struck. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was also a great builder; he renovated and added considerably to the Great Mosque at Córdoba and to the royal palace. At vast expense he built a new royal city, Madīnat al-Zahrāʾ, to house his household and government. He kept a very strict control over the affairs of state and his civil service, changing his governors frequently to avoid the growth of local dynasties. In 949 he executed his own son for conspiring against him.
Quick Facts
Byname:
Al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (Arabic: “Victor for the Religion of Allah”)
In full:
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabḍī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil
Christian and Jewish communities flourished during ʿAbd al-Raḥmān’s tolerant reign. His fame spread so far beyond his domains that Córdoba by the end of his reign enjoyed almost as much fame as Constantinople in the Mediterranean world. In Córdoba he received emissaries from such distant rulers as Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor. Córdoba was said to have contained 3,000 mosques and more than 100,000 shops and houses. His reign, the second longest of any Muslim caliph, afforded his wise and courageous policies the fullest chance of development.
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil al-Marwānī al-Umawī al-Qurashī (Arabic: عبدالرحمن بن محمد بن عبداللہ بن محمد بن عبدالرحمن بن الحكم بن هشام بن عبد الرحمن الداخل المرواني الأموي القرشي;[6] 890–961), or simply ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, was the UmayyadEmir of Córdoba from 912 to 929, at which point he founded the Caliphate of Córdoba, serving as its first caliph until his death. Abd al-Rahman won the laqab (sobriquet) al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (lit.'the Defender of God's Faith') in his early 20s when he supported the MaghrawaBerbers in North Africa against Fatimid expansion and later claimed the title of Caliph for himself.[14] His half-century reign was known for its religious tolerance.
Life
Early years
Lineage and appearance
Toda Aznares half aunt of Abd al-Rahman III
Abd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December 890.[5][15] His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891. He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine.[16] His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infantaOnneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black."[17] He had reddish-blond hair,[18] which he reportedly dyed black to appear more "Arab".[19]
Harem youth
Muhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as al-Sayyida ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour.[20] It was claimed that he had learned and known the local Mozarabic language.[21]
Accession to throne
Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.
Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912.[6] Historiographers of the time, such as Al-Bayan al-Mughrib and the Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman III, state that his succession was "without incident". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba.[6] To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of Reconquista in the Douro valley. To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented Muwallad families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Bobastro, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.
From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and centralise power, and re-establish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba.[6] From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the saqalibah, slaves of East European origin. The saqalibah represented a third ethnic group that could neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.
Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues:
The revenue of the king [Abd al-Rahman] amounts annually to 100,000 florins, this arising only from the income derived from the numerous merchants who come hither from various countries and isles. All their commerce and affairs must be subjected to my guidance, praised be the Almighty, who bestows his mercy upon me! The kings of the world no sooner perceive of the greatness of my monarch, than they hasten to convey to him presents in abundance. It is myself who am appointed to receive such presents, and at the same time to return rewards awarded to them.[22]
Early rule
During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and theKingdom of Navarre. The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy.[23]Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.
He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.
In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the Kūras (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.
During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (hasam) under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun.[6] Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.
The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.
Ibn Hafsun and other rebels
Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the long-standing rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.
His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troops moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.
The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called Turrus or Turrus Jusayn (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army appeared.
Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. One of Ibn Hafsun's sons, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around the city. Ja'far, after two years of siege, escaped from the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebels escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.
In 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina a year later. In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off following the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.
The last of the sons of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by troops commanded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Said ibn al-Mundhir, who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months,[6] until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.[24]
The Levente and Algarve rebels
The continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.[6] In most of the eastern and western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's authority was not recognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba.
To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, the governor ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Saʿid ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr. Alcácer do Sal and Lisbon were under the control of the Banu Dānis.
The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915. Abd al-Rahman III did not send an army and only several local Berber jefes offered some resistance which was ineffective.
Assumption of the Caliphate
Letter proclaiming Abd al-Rahman III's assumption of the caliphal title
We are the most worthy to fulfill our right, and the most entitled to complete our good fortune, and to put on the clothing granted by the nobility of God, because of the favour which He has shown us, and the renown which He has given us, and the power to which He has raised us, because of what He has enabled us to acquire, and because of what He has made easy for us and for our state [? dynasty; Arabic: dawla] to achieve; He has made our name and the greatness of our power celebrated everywhere; and He has made the hopes of the worlds depend on us [Arabic: a‘laqa], and made their errings turn again to us and their rejoicing at good news be (rejoicing at good news) about our dynasty [Arabic: dawla]. And praise be to God, possessed of grace and kindness, for the grace which He has shown, [God] most worthy of superiority for the superiority which He has granted us. We have decided that the da‘wa should be to us as Commander of the Faithful and that letters emanating from us or coming to us should be [headed] in the same manner. Everyone who calls himself by this name apart from ourselves is arrogating it to himself [unlawfully] and trespassing upon it and is branded with something to which he has no right. We know that if we were to continue [allowing] the neglect of this duty which is owed to us in this matter then we should be forfeiting our right and neglecting our title, which is certain. So order the khaṭīb in your place to pronounce [the khuṭba] using [this title] and address your communications to us accordingly, if God will. Written on Thursday, 2 Dhū al-Ḥijja 316 [16 January 929].
Despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba on 16 January 929, effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs.[25] The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa.[23] He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.
Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphal power were a sceptre (jayzuran) and the throne (sarir). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars[26] and silver dirhams, replacing the "al-Andalus" title with his name.
In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931)[6] and Tangiers (951), who, in return, accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatimids.[6] In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety by paying a huge sum.[27]
In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.
War with the Christian kingdoms of the north
Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.
Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz.[6] After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of León at Valdejunquera on 26 July,[6] he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.
In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. He launched a counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.[28]
The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid.
In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.
Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman,[6] due to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956. However, they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.
Dirham of Abd al-Rahman III, minted in Medina Azahara in 959/960 AD
In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphal supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in Córdoba.[6]
Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during the period. Ordoño III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV. Together with his grandmother Toda of Pamplona, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV.
Later years
Abd al-Rahman was accused of retreating in his later years into the "self-indulgent" comforts of his harem.[23] Indeed, he is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem (in common with a few other rulers such as Hisham II and Al-Mu'tamid).[29] A 13-year-old Christian was martyred after rejecting both the Caliph's sexual advances and conversion to Islam. Abd al-Rahman had the boy tortured and dismembered. The martyr was later canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba). [30]
Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.
Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings.[23] After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometres north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modelled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. It was said that Córdoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.[6]
Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.
He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa. The colonisers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.
Due to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.[6]
He was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins on his family. In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him. He was tolerant of non-Muslims, and Jews and Christians were treated fairly provided they were not one of his caliphate's slaves, sexual or otherwise.[31] European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor.[6]
Ancestry
Abd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region. His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona. In his immediate ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque.[1]
Catlos, Brian (2018). Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain. New York: Hachette Book Group. p. 129. ISBN9780465055876.
Azizur Rahman, Syed (2001). The Story of Islamic Spain(snippet view). New Delhi: Goodword Books. p. 129. ISBN978-81-87570-57-8. [Emir Abdullah died on] 16 Oct., 912 after 26 years of writing an intro to the first caliph and leaving his fragmented and bankrupt kingdom to his grandson 'Abd al-Rahman. The following day, the new sultan received the oath of allegiance at a ceremony held in the "Perfect salon" (al-majils al-kamil) of the Alcazar.
Gordon, Matthew (2005). "Document 15: Abd al-Rahman III of al-Andalus". The Rise of Islam. Greenwood guides to historic events of the medieval world. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 151. ISBN978-0-313-32522-9.
Mahberet Menahem (ed. Herschell Filipowski), London & Edinburgh 1854 (reprinted: Jerusalem 1987), in: Biography of the Author (the Celebrated Rabbi Menahem ben Saruk), p. 7; cf. Elkan Nathan Adler, Jewish Travellers, Routledge: London 1931, pp. 22–36 [vide Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schecter Collection (T-S Misc. 35.38)].
Encyclopedia of Medieval Iberia, ed. Michael Gerli (New York: Routledge, 2003), 398–399.
Walter Andrews and Mehmet Kalpaklı, The Age of Beloveds, Duke University Press, 2005; p. 2
Mendes, Ana Cristina; Baptista, Cristina (2014). Reviewing Imperial Conflicts. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 24.
Salas Merino, Vicente (2008). "La Dinastía Íñiga (820–905)". La Genealogía de Los Reyes de España [The Genealogy of the Kings of Spain] (in Spanish) (4th ed.). Madrid: Editorial Visión Libros. pp. 216–217. ISBN978-84-9821-767-4.
Coope, Jessica (1995). Martyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-1471-5.
Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN1-85168-384-4.
Ibn Idhari (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. Al-Bayan al-Mughrib [History of Al-Andalus from Spanish] (in Spanish). Vol. 1. translated by Francisco Fernández y González. Granada: Francisco Ventura y Sabatel. OCLC557028856.
Although other Spanish Muslim rulers like Abd al-Rahman II, Muhammad I and al-Hakam II had also achieved a tremendous amount and contributed greatly to the prosperity and progress of al-andalus, it was during the glorious reign of Abd al-Rahman III that Islamic Spain reached its political, social, cultural and intellectual zenith. His reign of forty-nine years was therefore a truly remarkable period in the history of Islamic Spain and Europe as a whole. In less than half a century, he transformed a politically disunited and economically ruined country into one of medieval Europe's most dazzling and prosperous nations. As an enlightened, tolerant and generous ruler, he showered his subjects with wealth and gifts and they, in turn, revered him more than anyone else. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III died in Cordova at the age of seventy-one. Al-andalus began to decline after his death and the Umayyads of Spain were eventually ousted from power in 1031.
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